Types of Research by Method. Why and Where these types used Descriptive, Historical, and Co-Relational Research to Discuss the Educational Phenomena?

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Research Methods/Types of Research:

Research can be classified in many different ways on the basis of the methodology of research, the knowledge it creates, the user group, the research problem it investigates etc.

Basic research

This research is conducted largely for the enhancement of knowledge, and is research which does not have immediate commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure, fundamental research. The main motivation here is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. According to Travers, “Basic Research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.” Such a research is time and cost intensive (Example: An experimental research that may not be or will be helpful in the human progress). It is used to solve a problem by adding to the field of application of a discipline.

Applied Research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is generally conducted on a large scale basis and is expensive. As such, it is often conducted with the support of some financing agency like the national government, public corporation, world bank, UNICEF, UGC, Etc. According to Hunt, “applied research is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems” for example:- improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific disease, improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, how can communication among workers in large companies be improved.

Problem oriented research

Research is done by industry apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the companies. Eg:- WTO does problem oriented research for developing countries, in India agriculture and processed food export development authority (APEDA) conduct regular research for the benefit of agri-industry.

As the name indicates, Problem identifying researches are undertaken to know the exact nature of problem that is required to be solved.
Here, one clarification is needed when we use the term ‘Problem’, it is not a problem in true sense. It is usually a decision making dilemma or it is a need to tackle a particular business situation.
It could be a difficulty or an opportunity. For e.g.:-Revenue of Mobile company has decreased by 25% in the last year. The cause of the problem can be any one of the following:
Poor quality of the product. • Lack of continuous availability. • Not so effective advertising campaign. • High price. • Poor calibre / lack of motivation in sales people/marketing team. • Tough competition from imported brands. • Depressed economic conditions
In the same case, suppose the prime cause of problem is poor advertising campaign & secondary cause is higher pricing. • To tackle the problem of poor advertising, we have to answer questions like, what can be the new advertising campaign, who can be the brand ambassador, which media, which channel, at what time & during which programme advertisements will be broadcast.

Problem solving

This type of research is done by an individual company for the problem faced by it. Marketing research and market research are the applied research. For eg:- videocon international conducts research to study customer satisfaction level, it will be problem solving research. In short, the main aim of problem solving research is to discover some solution for some pressing practical problem.

Quantitative Research

This research is based on numeric figures or numbers. Quantitative research aim to measure the quantity or amount and compares it with past records and tries to project for future period. In social sciences, “quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships”. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research. Statistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as economics and commerce.

In sum, the research using the normative approach conducts why may be called quantitative research as the inferences from it are largely based on quantitative data. Moreover, objectivity is the primary guard so that the research may be replicated by others, if necessary.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research presents a non-quantitative type of analysis. Qualitative research is collecting, analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and description of things. Qualitative research is much more subjective and uses very different methods of collecting information,mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups.

The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open ended. Small number of people are interviewed in depth and or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted. Qualitative research can be further classified in the following type.

I. Phenomenology:-a form of research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. Eg:-we might interview 20 victims of bhopal tragedy.

II. Ethnography:- this type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. A culture is the shared attributes, values, norms, practices, language, and material things of a group of people. Eg:-the researcher might decide to go and live with the tribal in Andaman island and study the culture and the educational practices.

III. Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account of one or more cases. Eg:-we may study a classroom that was given a new curriculum for technology use.

IV. Grounded theory:- it is an inductive type of research,based or grounded in the observations of data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys

V. Historical research:-it allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Eg:-the lending pattern of business in the 19th century.

In addition to the above, we also have the descriptive research. Fundamental research, of which this is based on establishing various theories

Also the research is classified into:

Descriptive research
Analytical research
Fundamental research
Conceptual research
Empirical research
One time research or longitudinal research
Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research
Clinical or diagnostic research
Exploratory research
Historical research
Conclusion oriented research
Case study research
Short term research

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a certain phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens. For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The research will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not cover any investigative details on “why” the patterns exeunt. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the objective of the study.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research: The term descriptive research then, refers to research

questions, design of the research and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational research method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect

quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is an popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the demographic segment.

1. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

2. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.

3. Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research.

The 3 Basic Types of Descriptive Research Methods

One of the goals of science is description (other goals include prediction and explanation). Descriptive research methods are pretty much as they sound — they describe situations. They do not make accurate predictions, and they do not determine cause and effect.

There are three main types of descriptive methods: observational methods, case-study methods and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream media, or when reading a research study on your own.

Observational Method

With the observational method animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation and laboratory observation.

The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations.Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation. Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.

Case Study Method

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of indviduals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.

There are two serious problems with case studies — expectancy effects and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity.

Survey Method

In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.

Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions. Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type: Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically. In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods.

It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B,

or does B cause A?

Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from the truth

CORRELATION RESEARCH

To carried out to help explain important human behaviours or to predict likely outcomes. Purposes of

correlational research Explanatory studies It is to clarify out understanding of important phenomena by identifying relationship among variables. Always investigate a number of variables they believe are related to a more complex variables such as motivation or learning. Types of correlational research.

Selecting a problem Choosing a sample Selecting or developing instrument Determining procedures Collecting and analyzing data Interpreting result Basic steps.

Teacher about to study the causes of the amount of descriptive behaviours display in class. Student having difficulty in mathematic subject. Teacher about to study the causes of student does not perform in the subject.

Example

What? Investigator attempt to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist between or among group of individuals. Sometimes viewed, along with correlational

Historical research

The searches had been carried out the next step was to build up a picture of the situation in each region for each of the three years using the “6 - I” model as a framework. This was done by combining the results of the searches ordered by category, sub-category and year for each of the two regions and the national situation. This data was used as a basis to describe developments in that region during 1985 to 2005. As with the first round of data collection further refinement took place during the writing up process, duplications and overlaps were identified and articles were reassigned to different categories as appropriate. The data collection process is summarised in Table 5. Stage Method Analysis First Round Interviews with significant Data coded using NVivo with figures working in each region. 6-I model used as overall conceptual framework. Second Round

Regional newspapers scanned Data coded using Access for relevant articles for years database with 6-I model used as 1985, 1995 and 2005. overall conceptual framework. National & regional reports Data used to supplement and produced by Government, confirm data from newspaper economic development bodies, articles. NGO’s and Statistics New Zealand collected for period from 1985 to 2005. Historical source material consists of primary and secondary sources. Historians select the events and people that they consider important. By doing so they don’t so much recreate the past as rediscover it, and to some extent colour it with their own set of value judgements. The historical researcher’s most important role is to choose reliable sources, in order to create reliable narratives about the past (Howell et al. 2001). There needs to be a systematic approach to gathering data, as collecting only the most compelling evidence can result in material that is unrepresentative (Wenger et al. 2000). Utilising the authoritative source only is not a wise approach. Evidence should be collected from a wide range of sources, each of which will have their own strengths and weaknesses (Tosh 2000). Any source material collected should be subjected to both external and internal criticism. The authenticity of the evidence is determined by external criticism, whereas credibility is established by internal criticism (Shafer 1980). The use of external criticism involves establishing whether a document can be traced back to the purported originator, establishing whether it is consistent with known facts, and studying the form of the document (Tosh 2000). Internal criticism consists of trying to establish the author’s meaning and making a judgement as to the inten tions and prejudices of the writer (Tosh 2000).

Context 2 criticism consists of trying to establish the author's meaning and making a judgement as to the intentions and prejudices of the writer (Tosh 2000). An overview of the two techniques is shown as . Regional newspapers are an authentic primary source. ...

Citations

• It easily leads to a distorted understanding of the subject matter and, perhaps, to a subjective attitude of superiority. Some believe this could be balanced with 'empathy' which would aid in imagining how events were experienced, and would also color history more appealing and interesting to others (cf.Toland and Yoong 2013;LévesqueLévesque 2008, Mason et al. 1997a). Historical empathy was argued by historians in the midnineteenth century: however, answers/facts/evidence are not sought from empathy but from historical sources. ...

... An example of this type of focusing question can be found in Jaana Porra, Rudy Hirschheim and Michael S. Parks (2006): " What significant changes did the Texaco IT function face over its existence? " However, these types of open-ended questions often provide descriptions only and, ultimately, do not satisfy the historian, whose main task is to explain past events and development and whose main focus is the question of Why (see alsoHepsø et al. 2009;Toland and Yoong 2013;Bryant et al. 2013). The historian looks after the causes of events, the change that occurred, and the many consequences, both intended and unintended. ... ... Toland and Yoong (2013) comment that an important technique of historical research is to " listen for silences, " but, as a matter of fact, an argument from silence—argumentum ex silentio—is generally regarded as unreliable by historians. IS historians need to be aware of the questionable credibility of some sources (Toland and Yoong 2013). The credibility of a source depends on which questions are about to be addressed.

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Types of Research by Method. Why and Where these types used Descriptive, Historical, and Co-Relational Research to Discuss the Educational Phenomena?